[254][256], Oman Radio is the first and only state-owned radio channel. [163], The Sultanate is administratively divided into eleven governorates. [271] Al-Batena area in Oman is specifically prominent for such events. The ratio of exported fish to total fish captured in tons fluctuated between 49 and 61 percent between 2006 and 2016. The conflict led to the erection of border fences and walls along large sections to curb unlawful cross-border issues. The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The border between the two countries is 187 miles in length. Though the inner details concerning the boundary were not made public, the agreement provided for rights to share water resources as well as grazing fields. The Hajar Mountains are a distinct ecoregion, the highest points in eastern Arabia with wildlife including the Arabian tahr. The exclave is situated inside the UAEs Emirate of Sharjah and has a population of about 3,000 inhabitants. [22] Although a number of eponymous founders have been proposed (Oman bin Ibrahim al-Khalil, Oman bin Siba' bin Yaghthan bin Ibrahim, Oman bin Qahtan and the Biblical Lot), others derive it from the name of a valley in Yemen at Ma'rib presumed to have been the origin of the city's founders, the Azd, a tribe migrating from Yemen. The rivalry within the house of Yaruba over power after the death of Imam Sultan in 1718 weakened the dynasty. There have been numerous testimonies of torture and other inhumane forms of punishment perpetrated by security forces on protesters and detainees. Here we have gathered the top things most people don't know about Oman. Completed in the 2000s, the road has been instrumental in boosting the international trade between the two countries, as well as the legal cross-border movement of people. In December 1955, Sultan Said bin Taimur sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy the main centres in Oman, including Nizwa, the capital of the Imamate of Oman, and Ibri. However, Majan TV's official channel website was last updated in early 2010. The road has played a major role in both the growth of international trade and control of the cross-border movement of people. Pakistan is a South Asian country with a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman. Other historians believe that the Yaarubah from Qahtan which belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd. [157] Omanis who want to set up a non-governmental organisation of any kind need a licence. [168] The largest 10 percent of corporations in Oman are the employers of almost 80 percent of Omani nationals in the private sector. Muscat: The Supreme Committee for dealing with COVID-19 has decided to allow people from neighbouring countries to move daily across the land borders to perform their work in Oman. The Gulf of Oman has the lowest point in the country at 0 m. The country also has several islands some of which like the Masirah Island, Al Halaaniyaat Islands have been marked on the map above. [56] The mango-tree was introduced to Oman during the time of Nabhani dynasty, by ElFellah bin Muhsin. In 1999 and in 2005, the two countries agreed on maps delineating their border. [45], Omani Azd used to travel to Basra for trade, which was a centre of Islam, during the Umayyad empire. [243] Despite these similarities, important factors make Oman unique in the Middle East. Central and southeast, a few scrubby hills and low mountains dot the central desert landscape and coastal areas. Oman is categorized as a high-income economy and, as of 2022[update], ranks as the 64th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index. The Sultan Qaboos Sports Complex stadium contains a 50-meter swimming pool which is used for international tournaments. [253] Although private ownership of radio and television stations is permitted, Oman has only one privately owned television channel. It is bordered by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north; by the Persian Gulf, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman to the east; by a portion of Oman to the southeast; by Yemen to the south and southwest; and by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba to the west. The agreement provided for the movement of people and livestock across the border, the use of water sources on the border, and grazing rights. In 1929, the members of the agreement established Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC). The country shares its maritime borders with Pakistan and Iran. Abstract. British National Archive: History of the imms and seyyids of 'Omn (44/612). International dialing codes. The countries bordering the Gulf of Oman include Iran, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and Pakistan. "DAWN Cowasjee Corner; September 11, 2005", "A Close Relationship: Britain and Oman Since 1750", Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy, History of the imms and seyyids of 'Omn by Sall-ibn-Razk, from A.D. 6611856 (89/612), British National Archive: Muscat and the Monsoon, British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events 189/222, British National Archive: Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History, British National Archive: The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur, British National Archive: File 8/67 Muscat State Affairs: Muscat Oman Treaty, British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920, "BBC Middle East: Oman profile Timeline (25 April 2018)", United States Office of the Historian: The 1928 Red Line Agreement, "British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf (208/222)", "International trade networks: The Omani Enclave of Gwadar Conference on German and International Research on Oman, Bonn 1998: abstracts". [97][89], Colonel David Smiley, who had been seconded to organise the Sultan's Armed Forces, managed to isolate the mountain in autumn 1958 and found a route to the plateau from Wadi Bani Kharus. The main importer is India (around 60 percent of all imports). [157] Oman's police do not need search warrants to enter people's homes. Omanis (Arabic: ) are the nationals of Sultanate of Oman, located in the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula.Omanis have inhabited the territory that is now Oman. [53][69] In 1798, the first treaty between the British East India Company and the Albusaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. [196] The ratio of patent applications per million people was 0.35 in 2016 and the MENA region average was 1.50, while the 'high-income' countries' average was approximately 48.0 during the same year. Willem Floor, "Dutch Relations with the Persian Gulf", in Lawrence G. Potter (ed.). Oman had a 2020 Vision to diversify the economy established in 1995, which targeted a decrease in oil's share to less than 10 percent of GDP by 2020, but it was rendered obsolete in 2011. [199], In November 2019, Oman made the rule of visa on arrival an exception and introduced the concept of e-visa for tourists from all nationalities. Oman is strategically situated at the mouth of the Persian Gulf in the south eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. Later, several more Omani cities were colonized in the early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the Persian Gulf and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in the region, from Basra to Hormuz. [13] Although authorities must obtain court orders to hold suspects in pre-trial detention, they do not regularly do this. There are many different flavors, the most popular ones being black halwa (original) and saffron halwa. There are no perennial rivers or lakes of note. [201] The majority of firms in Oman operate in the oil and gas, construction and trade sectors. Nevertheless, the borderline is not yet finalized since Saudi Arabia is claiming some tracks of land in Oman and adjacent countries of Yemen and UAE. The 250 miles border begins at the tripoint between Oman, UAE, and Saudi Arabia then extends northwards to the Gulf of Oman. With an additional 15% expatriate population, Jeffrey I. National Green Export Review of Oman: Tourism, Dates and Fish. [188], In 2018, oil and gas represented 71 percent of the government's revenues. The base is also used by US forces after a diplomatic agreement signed by the two states. As a remedy, Oman has embarked in a controversial project that involves the construction of a wall along the porous northern part of the border, delimiting the Omani governorate of Dhohar and Yemens province of Al Mahrah. The Royal Household maintained 5,000 Guards, 1,000 in Special Forces, 150 sailors in the Royal Yacht fleet, and 250 pilots and ground personnel in the Royal Flight squadrons. This nation state is located at a strategic intersection between the Arab, Turkish, Russian and Indian worlds. [79], The Hajar Mountains, of which the Jebel Akhdar is a part, separate the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese built up and fortified the city, where remnants of their Portuguese architectural style still exist. Governorates are, in turn, divided into 60 wilayats.[164][165]. British National Archive: History of the imms and seyyids of 'Omn (165/612). [157] Omanis have limited access to political information through the media. The only places with organized authority were near ports or oasis. [93] In 1946, the British government offered arms and ammunition, auxiliary supplies and officers to prepare the sultan to attack the interior of Oman. Strategically located on the Arabian Sea, Salalah is the second-largest city of Oman. At the beginning of the 21st century, the border of Oman was grappling with insecurity, especially the border with Yemen. Thousands of people fleeing the carnage caused by the Yemeni war have fled to Al Mahrah where Oman has been sending humanitarian assistance in the form of medical supplies, food, and tents. Oman is a sultanate on the Arabian Peninsula. [81] Sultan Said, however, with the intervention of British infantry (two companies of the Cameronians), armoured car detachments from the British Army and RAF aircraft, was able to suppress the rebellion. Oman is known for its vibrant culture, adobe fortresses, and mosques. His return (and the return of many other scholars) greatly enhanced the Ibadhi movement in Oman. [53] The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed the alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political conditions of the locals. The Oman Centre for Traditional Music was established in 1984 to preserve them. [237] It showcases national heritage from the earliest human settlement in Oman two million years ago through to the present day. The exclave covers an area of 29 square miles is governed as part of the Musandam governorate. Since Sultan Qaboos' ascension to power in 1970, the government has given high priority to education to develop a domestic work force. British National Archive: History of the imms and seyyids of 'Omn by Sall-ibn-Razk, from A.D. 6611856 (168/612). In 1997, a royal decree was issued granting women the right to vote, and stand for election to the Majlis al-Shura, the Consultative Assembly of Oman. The major security threat between Yemen and Oman is the Al-Qaida in Arabian Peninsula abbreviated as AQAP. Fish exports between 2000 and 2016 grew from US$144million to US$172million (+19.4 percent). The Oman government has refused to implement a spay and neuter programme or create any animal shelters in the country. Physical Map of United Arab Emirates. Omani cuisine is diverse and has been influenced by many cultures. History of the imms and seyyids of 'Omn by Sall-ibn-Razk, from A.D. 6611856 (83/612). As the rebellion threatened the Sultan's control of Dhofar, Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed in a bloodless coup (1970) by his son Qaboos bin Said, who expanded the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces, modernised the state's administration and introduced social reforms. In 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) ranked Oman as the least polluted country in the Arab world, with a score of 37.7 in the pollution index. [85] On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated. Yemen, Saudi Arabia, The United Arab Emirates. The CO2 emissions from energy (tCO2/capita) and CO2 emissions embodied in fossil fuel exports (kg per capita) rates are very high, while imported CO2 emissions (tCO2/capita) and people affected by climate-related disasters (per 100,000 people) rates are low.[125]. Muscat, the capital of Oman, is located on the coast of the gulf. In 2006, Oman had ten surface combat vessels. [185][186] The Ministry of Energy and Minerals is responsible for all oil and gas infrastructure and projects in Oman. Muscat is the nation's capital and largest city. [203] Oman in 2019 ranked 80 out of 129 countries in innovation index, which takes into consideration factors, such as, political environment, education, infrastructure and business sophistication. [13] Since 1970 all legislation has been promulgated through royal decrees, including the 1996 Basic Law. [71] As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century. 120th most populous country in the world. The information contained in this website is for general information purposes only. SA SAU +966. [87] Between July and December 1958, the British RAF made 1,635 raids, dropping 1,094 tons and firing 900 rockets at the interior of Oman targeting insurgents, mountain top villages, water channels and crops. The a cappella production features three of the region's most popular talents: Kahliji musician Al Wasmi, Omani poet Mazin Al-Haddabi and actress Buthaina Al Raisi. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of the French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at Bandar Abbas. [146], Oman's military manpower totalled 44,100 in 2006, including 25,000 men in the army, 4,200 sailors in the navy, and an air force with 4,100 personnel. Oman was also the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf to have German taught as a second language. In the south, the Dhofar Mountains area near Salalah has a tropical-like climate and receives seasonal rainfall from late June to late September as a result of monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean, leaving the summer air saturated with cool moisture and heavy fog. [222] Bengali is widely spoken due to a large Bangladeshi expatriate population. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and recognized the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the Sultanate of Muscat. Later, Al-hajjaj, the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadhis, which forced them back to Oman. The climate is generally very hot, with temperatures reaching around 54C (129.2F) (peak) in the hot season, from May to September. [94] In May 1954, Imam Alkhalili died and Ghalib Alhinai was elected Imam. It has oil reserves ranked 22nd globally. [244], The male national dress in Oman consists of the dishdasha, a simple, ankle-length, collarless gown with long sleeves. In 1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates. Despite a 1974 secret agreement between the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia said to have resolved their three border disputes, the agreement's legal standing is unclear. United Arab Emirates has 5 unique land boundaries with neigbouring territories and it shares its land borders with 2 different countries. In early 2018, Muscat Media Group (MMG) launched a new private radio station. Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History. The AQAP is a terrorist group that has for many years terrorized people along the border. [142] Around 20% of Omanis are of Baloch descent whose ancestors migrated to Oman centuries ago, and are now considered native. [246], The khanjar (dagger) forms part of the national dress and men wear the khanjar on all formal public occasions and festivals. Neighboring countries include Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. [155], The Omani government decides who can or cannot be a journalist and this permission can be withdrawn at any time. [169], Oman, as per Global Innovation Index (2019) report, scores "below expectations" in innovation relative to countries classified under high income. Oil and gas sector represented 30.1 percent of the nominal GDP in 2017. [196] The inefficiences and bottlenecks in business operations that are a result of heavy dependence on natural resources and 'addiction' to imports in Oman suggest a 'factor-driven economy'. 1 USD equals 0.385 Omani rial Form Of Government: monarchy with two advisory bodies (State Council [85 1 ]; Consultative Council [86]) . A statement issued online by Oman TV. YE YEM +967. [170] Tourism, another source of Oman's revenue, is on the rise. One group, a segment of the Azd tribe migrated from Yemen in A.D. 120[36]/200 following the collapse of Marib Dam, while the other group migrated a few centuries before the birth of Islam from Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia), named Nizari. [67] By the end of the 19th century, and with the loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters. There is low economic and infrastructural development in Madha, with the only area with considerable development being New Madha, which is also where the majority of the exclaves population resides. Oman also maintains a modestly sized paramilitary force of 4,400 men. Oman is among the very few Arab countries that have maintained friendly ties with Iran. Yemen More Information on Oman Find detailed information on Oman. Oman is also expanding its downstream operations by constructing a refinery and petrochemical plant in Duqm with a 230,000 barrels per day capacity projected for completion by 2021. All maps, graphics, flags, photos and original descriptions 2023 worldatlas.com. According to a recent report by the World Bank, India can generate a whopping $1.6 trillion of investment by 2040 by adopting green cooling technologies and practices 1. Accreditation standards and mechanisms with a quality control that focuses on input assessments, rather than output, are areas of improvement in Oman, according to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2014 report. In 2016, Bait Muzna opened a second space in Salalah to branch out and support art film and the digital art scene. [265], The Sultanate's flagship cultural institution, the National Museum of Oman, opened on 30 July 2016 with 14 permanent galleries. [171][197] Muscat, the capital of Oman, was named the second best city to visit in the world in 2012 by the travel guide publisher Lonely Planet. [55] The Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on the overland route via Sohar to the Yabrin oasis, and then north to Bahrain, Baghdad and Damascus. Science, Technology and Innovation 2014 Review. Since 1970, Oman has pursued a moderate foreign policy, and has expanded its diplomatic relations dramatically. [53] The authority of the Imams started to decline due to power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid, and the rise of the Seljuk Empire. The Omani Navy had one 2,500-ton Nasr al Bahr class LSL (240 troops, 7 tanks) with a helicopter deck. Name Population Latitude/Longitude; 1: Muscat , Muscat: 797,000: 23.584 / 58.408: 2: Seeb , Muscat: 470,878 Halwa is considered a symbol of Omani hospitality, traditionally served with coffee. However, the construction of the border fence has restricted the cross-border activities between the two border towns. Oman's socio-economic structure is described as being hyper-centralized rentier welfare state. [241], Outwardly, Oman shares many of the cultural characteristics of its Arab neighbours, particularly those in the Gulf Cooperation Council. Oman occupies an area of 309,500 sq. Geography also plays a part in Iran's desire to become a great regional power. Within the Madha exclave is a UAE enclave called Nahwa, belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah, situated about 8km (5mi) west of the town of New Madha, and consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange. Six were given jail terms. As for road incident death rates, Oman's rate has been decreasing since 1990, from 98.9 per 100,000 individuals to 47.1 per 100,000 in 2017, however, the rate remains significantly above average, which was 15.8 per 100,000 in 2017. [125], Oman's higher education produces a surplus in humanities and liberal arts, while it produces an insufficient number in technical and scientific fields and required skill-sets to meet the market demand. Salaries for overseas workers are known to be less than for Omani nationals, though still from two to five times higher than for the equivalent job in India. [30] Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage named eponymously from Samad al-Shan. What is Oman's neighbouring countries? Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf. km in the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula . Oman TV broadcasts four HD channels, including Oman TV General, Oman TV Sport, Oman TV Live and Oman TV Cultural. The borders of the country run partially along the seaside, but also partially along the countryside. [150] According to SIPRI, Oman was the 23rd largest arms importer from 2012 to 2016. Alhajjaj, however, sent another force (under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman); he eventually won the war, taking over the governance of Oman. [76][78], Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the Swahili Coast as well as being a major producer of cloves, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the Sayyid Sa'id bin Sultan, to make it the capital of the empire in 1837. [275], Library of Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque, Muscat, Oman. [212] The third identity pertains mostly to Muscat and the coastal areas of Oman, and is reflected by business, trade,[212] and the diverse origins of many Omanis, who trace their roots to Baloch, Al-Lawatia, Persia and historical Omani Zanzibar. In particular, stray dogs (and to a lesser extent, stray cats) are often the victims of torture, abuse or neglect. [168] Oman was ranked 84th in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, down from 80th in 2019.[227][228][229][230]. From the 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was an empire, vying with the Portuguese and British empires for influence in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. Oman shares both maritime as well as land borders with various countries. [13] The Sultan's authority is inviolable and the Sultan expects total subordination to his will.[13]. 50 Capital Cities at Random Quiz Muscat, Oman: Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque The town's unusual architecture shows Arab, Portuguese, Persian, Indian, African, and modern Western influences. International phone number Oman +968. Since the revival of the Imamate with the Yaruba dynasty, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family. Sultan Said bin Taimur expressed his interest in occupying the Imamate right after the death of Imam Alkhalili, thus taking advantage of any potential instability that might occur within the Imamate when elections were due, to the British government. What is Oman known for? Women also wear a head shawl most commonly referred to as the lihaf. [122] Some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. Ahram Online, Saturday 15 Jul 2023. [189] The government's reliance on oil and gas as a source of income dropped by 1 percent from 2016 to 2018. [95] Relations between the Sultan Said bin Taimur, and Imam Ghalib Alhinai frayed over their dispute about oil concessions. During Ramadan, dinner is typically served after the Taraweeh prayers, sometimes as late as 11pm. [54] The Nabhanis ruled as muluk, or kings, while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. [191] Oman's natural gas reserves are estimated at 849.5billion cubic metres, ranking 28th in the world, and production in 2008 was about 24billion cubic metres per year. [19], The origin of Oman's name seems to be related to Pliny the Elder's Omana[20] and Ptolemy's Omanon ( in Greek),[21] both probably the ancient Sohar. Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society. His rule started in 1868. City Cinema. [168], Since a slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of industry, namely tourism and infrastructure. Oman TV is the only state-owned national television channel broadcaster in Oman. Oman's highest point is Jabal Akhdar which reaches 9,776 ft. (2,980 m) and is marked on the map by a yellow triangle, is located in this mountain region. These governorates are further subdivided into a total of 59 provinces (wilayat). Oman (/ o m n / oh-MAHN; Arabic: , [man]), officially the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: Salanat(u) Umn), is a country located in West Asia.It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of the Persian Gulf.Oman shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen, while . Oman then established 2040 Vision. [98] On 4 August 1957, the British Foreign Secretary gave the approval to carry out air strikes without prior warning to the locals residing in the interior of Oman. Additionally, Swahili is widely spoken in the country due to the historical relations between Oman and Zanzibar. ", "National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (1524) and elderly literacy rates (65+)", Our World in Data: Share of the population that is undernourished, Our World in Data: Healthcare Access and Quality Index, "World Health Organization: "Monitoring Health for SDGs" 2018 report", "Oman among least polluted countries in Asia", "World Health Organization Assesses the World's Health Systems", "Barriers To Developing 'Leadership' In The Sultanate Of Oman", "#LoveOman video goes viral with 500, 000 views Oman Observer", "City Cinema Oman | Cinema Theatres in Oman | Book Movie Tickets Online in Oman | Movie theatres in Oman | Oman Movie Theatre Tickets Online Booking", "Oman: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy", "New radio stations T FM and Shabiba FM have officially launched in Oman", "2018 World Press Freedom Index | Reporters Without Borders", "Contemporary Art in Oman: Spaces And Places", "Oman National Museum a showcase of Sultanate's heritage and values", Traditional sports in Oman relics of the rich Arabian history, "The Beach Handball 2012 World Championships", "Legends Cup promises to be true battle for honours - 'a la clasico', "T20 World Cup: Oman to host 'minimum six' games", Gulf Organization for Industrial Consulting, Union of Arab National Olympic Committees, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oman&oldid=1165682291, Arabic-speaking countries and territories, Member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council, Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, States and territories established in the 750s, Pages containing links to subscription-only content, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2022, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2023, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2010, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2007, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Articles with MusicBrainz area identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0, This page was last edited on 16 July 2023, at 19:01. There are also communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians. IPC offered financial support to the sultan to raise an armed force against any potential resistance by the Imamate.[89][90]. Oman allowed the British Royal Navy and Indian Navy access to the port facilities of Al Duqm Port & Drydock. [195] A challenge to tourism development in Oman is the reliance on the government-owned firm, Omran, as a key actor to develop the tourism sector, which potentially creates a market barrier-to-entry of private-sector actors and a crowding out effect.